Interview Questions for PV System Fault Detection and Isolation

PV system faults can be broadly categorized into several types, each impacting the system’s performance and safety. Think of it like a car – a fault in any part can affect its overall function.

• Open Circuits: These occur when a break in the wiring prevents current flow. Imagine a broken wire in your car’s electrical system; the affected component won’t work. This can happen in the panels, wiring, or connectors.
• Short Circuits: An unintended path for current, bypassing the normal circuit. This is like a short circuit in your house causing a breaker to trip – a dangerous situation that needs immediate attention. In PV systems, this can be caused by damaged insulation, faulty diodes, or shading.
• Shading: Partial shading of a panel reduces its power output significantly and can lead to hotspots and accelerated degradation. Think of a cloud partially covering a solar panel – only part of it can generate electricity effectively.
• Diode Faults: Bypass diodes in solar panels prevent the entire panel from shutting down if one cell is shaded. A faulty bypass diode can cause overheating or reduced performance. This is like having a backup system in place; if one part fails, the others can still operate, but if the backup fails, the whole thing is compromised.
• Ground Faults: A connection between the PV system and the ground, creating a safety hazard and potential power loss. This is a critical safety concern, like a faulty electrical ground in your home, potentially causing a shock.
• Mismatch Faults: Differences in the characteristics of individual panels in a string, reducing overall system efficiency. This is like having different tire pressures on your car; some tires will work harder than others, and the performance will suffer.

Isolating a fault in a PV array involves a systematic approach that combines visual inspection, electrical testing, and data analysis. Think of it as a detective investigating a crime scene – we need to gather clues and eliminate possibilities.

1. Visual Inspection: Begin by visually inspecting the entire array for obvious signs of damage like cracked panels, loose connectors, or burned wiring.
2. String-by-String Testing: Measure the voltage and current of each string using a multimeter. A significantly lower voltage or current than expected indicates a problem within that string.
3. Panel-by-Panel Testing (within Faulty String): Once a faulty string is identified, test each panel individually using a multimeter or I-V curve tracer to pinpoint the affected panel.
4. Detailed Investigation: If a faulty panel is found, further investigation might be necessary to identify the specific fault within that panel (e.g., cracked cells, faulty bypass diodes).
5. Documentation: Thoroughly document all findings, including measurements, observations, and corrective actions.

An I-V curve tracer plots the current (I) versus voltage (V) characteristics of a solar panel. By comparing the I-V curve of a suspected faulty panel to the I-V curves of healthy panels, you can easily identify anomalies.

A healthy panel will show a smooth, characteristic curve. A faulty panel might exhibit:

• Lower Short-Circuit Current (Isc): Indicating shading, cracks, or cell defects. The curve would be shifted downwards.
• Lower Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): Suggests a problem with the diodes or cells. The curve would be flattened.
• Increased Series Resistance: Reduces the slope of the curve, indicating problems with cell interconnection or damaged conductors.
• Lower Fill Factor (FF): A reduced area under the I-V curve, showing overall panel performance degradation.

By comparing the I-V curve of a suspect panel against a known good one, the differences in these parameters reveal the fault’s nature.

Voltage drops in a PV system indicate a loss of power along the path from the panels to the inverter or load. These drops can be due to several factors.

• High Resistance Connections: Loose or corroded connections increase resistance and cause voltage drops. Imagine water flowing through a narrow pipe – it flows slower than in a wider pipe.
• Long Cable Runs: Longer cable lengths have higher resistance, leading to greater voltage drops, especially with thinner gauge wires.
• Oversized Loads: If the load draws more current than the system can provide, the voltage will drop.
• Faulty Wiring: Damaged, incorrectly sized, or poorly installed wires increase resistance and cause voltage drops.
• Shading: Partially shaded panels generate less current, impacting the overall string voltage.
• Faulty Combiner Box: Corrosion or loose connections in the combiner box can cause voltage loss.

A multimeter is an essential tool for troubleshooting PV systems. It measures voltage, current, and resistance, enabling the detection of various faults. Think of it as a doctor’s stethoscope – it helps listen to the system’s “heartbeat”.

• Voltage Measurement: Check voltage at various points in the system (panels, strings, combiner box, inverter input) to identify voltage drops.
• Current Measurement: Measure the current flowing through strings and circuits to assess the system’s output and identify faults.
• Resistance Measurement: Measure the resistance of wires and connections to detect high resistance caused by corrosion, loose connections, or damaged wiring. A high resistance indicates a potential problem.
• Continuity Test: Verify the continuity of wires and connections to check for open circuits.

Remember safety precautions – always disconnect the system before making any measurements.

PV system monitoring systems provide valuable data about the system’s performance, helping identify potential issues before they become major problems. Think of it like a car’s dashboard – it shows you essential information about its performance.

Interpreting the data involves:

• Monitoring Power Output: Track daily, weekly, and monthly energy production to spot any significant drops in output. A sudden decline could indicate a fault.
• Analyzing Voltage and Current Data: Examine string voltages and currents for inconsistencies that might point to faults.
• Checking Inverter Performance: Analyze inverter efficiency and look for error codes that indicate potential problems.
• Evaluating Temperature Data: High temperatures might suggest hotspots or faulty bypass diodes.
• Identifying Trends: Observe trends in performance to anticipate potential issues. A slow gradual decrease in output could be a sign of panel degradation.

Most modern monitoring systems provide alerts and visualization tools that simplify data interpretation.

Proper grounding is crucial for safety in PV systems. It protects against electrical shocks and prevents damage to equipment. Testing involves several methods.

• Ground Resistance Measurement: Using a ground resistance tester (megohmmeter), measure the resistance between the ground electrode and the earth. A low resistance (<4 ohms is often considered acceptable) is vital for safety.
• Visual Inspection: Visually inspect the grounding wire for damage, corrosion, or loose connections. Ensure that the ground wire is properly connected to the ground electrode.
• Continuity Test: Use a multimeter to test the continuity of the grounding system, confirming a complete path to earth.
• Voltage Drop Test: Check for voltage between the grounded components and the earth. A significant voltage drop would indicate a problem in the grounding path.

Grounding standards vary, so check local regulations and codes for specific requirements.

Troubleshooting a faulty solar inverter involves a systematic approach combining visual inspection, data analysis, and testing. First, always ensure the inverter is safely disconnected from the grid and the PV array. Then:

• Visual Inspection: Check for any obvious signs of damage, loose connections, tripped breakers, or unusual noises. Look for error codes displayed on the inverter’s screen – these are crucial clues.

• Data Analysis: Many inverters have monitoring capabilities, providing data on power output, voltage, current, and temperature. Analyze this data to pinpoint the problem. For example, low DC input voltage could point to issues with the PV array, while low AC output could suggest an inverter problem.

• Testing: Use a multimeter to measure voltages and currents at various points in the system, comparing readings to the inverter’s specifications. You might test the DC voltage at the array’s input, AC voltage at the output, and ground continuity.

• Component Level Diagnosis (Advanced): If the issue isn’t readily apparent, more advanced diagnostics may be necessary, possibly involving checking internal components of the inverter (this usually requires specialized training and tools).

Example: If the inverter displays an ‘overtemperature’ error, it could indicate a faulty cooling fan, insufficient ventilation, or even a problem with the internal components overheating. Addressing the root cause, not just the symptom, is key.

Safety is paramount when working on PV systems. Here’s a breakdown of essential precautions:

• Lockout/Tagout (LOTO): Always disconnect and lock out the DC and AC sides of the system before any work. This prevents accidental energization. Never rely solely on a switch; always use LOTO procedures.

• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Wear appropriate PPE, including insulated gloves, safety glasses, and arc-flash protective clothing (depending on voltage levels).

• Grounding: Ensure the system is properly grounded to protect against electrical shocks.

• Arc Flash Hazard Awareness: Understand the potential for arc flash incidents and take appropriate precautions, including working with qualified personnel and using appropriate PPE.

• Awareness of potential hazards: Always be mindful of potential hazards like falling from heights when working on rooftops or elevated structures. Use appropriate fall protection equipment if necessary.

• Working with a partner: Never work alone on a PV system, always have a qualified colleague present.

Example: Before replacing a faulty PV module, always ensure the system is properly locked out and tagged out, and that you are wearing insulated gloves and safety glasses. A simple oversight could lead to serious injury.

String inverters and microinverters are both used to convert DC power from solar panels into usable AC power, but they differ significantly in their architecture and functionality:

• String Inverter: A central inverter that handles the power from a string (series connection) of PV modules. One fault in the string can affect the entire string’s output. They are generally cost-effective but less efficient in partially shaded conditions.

• Microinverter: A small inverter attached to each individual PV module. This means each module operates independently. If one module is shaded or faulty, it does not impact the others’ output. They are more efficient in partially shaded conditions but are more expensive initially.

Analogy: Think of a string inverter as a single water pump for a large network of pipes. If one pipe is blocked, the whole system is affected. A microinverter is like having a small pump for each pipe; if one pipe is blocked, only that pipe is affected.

In summary: String inverters are simpler, cheaper, but less efficient in partial shading; microinverters are more complex, expensive, but offer greater efficiency and module-level monitoring capabilities.

Diagnosing and repairing shading issues in a PV array requires a methodical approach:

• Visual Inspection: Carefully examine the PV array to identify the source of shading. Trees, buildings, or even other PV modules can cause shading. Pay attention to the time of day when shading is most pronounced.

• Infrared Thermography: Use an infrared camera to detect temperature variations across the array. Shaded modules will typically be cooler than unshaded ones. This helps pinpoint the affected modules even if the shading isn’t immediately obvious.

• Data Analysis: Examine inverter data and module-level monitoring (if available) to identify underperforming modules or strings. Look for patterns in their output during specific times of day.

• Remediation: Once the source of shading is identified, the appropriate remediation strategy should be employed. This could involve trimming trees, relocating the array, or implementing module-level power optimizers. In some cases, using a different array layout can alleviate shade issues.

Example: A homeowner notices reduced energy production. A visual inspection reveals a tree partially shading the array in the afternoon. Trimming the branches improves energy production.

Arc faults in PV systems are dangerous electrical discharges that can damage equipment and pose a fire hazard. Common causes include:

• Degradation of insulation: Age, weathering, or rodent damage can weaken the insulation on wires, connectors, and modules, leading to arcing between conductors.

• Loose connections: Poorly tightened connectors or corroded terminals can create high resistance, generating heat and potentially leading to an arc fault.

• Micro cracks or defects in PV modules: Microscopic cracks or defects in the PV modules’ cells can cause internal arcing.

• Bypass diodes failure: A failure of a module’s bypass diodes can cause excessive current flow, increasing the chance of arcing.

• Birds/ Animals: Animals nesting in the array or rodents chewing on wires can damage insulation and cause arcing.

Prevention: Regular inspections, proper installation techniques, and the use of arc fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs) can mitigate the risk of arc faults.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) used to assess PV system health include:

• Energy Production: Total energy generated over a specified period (e.g., daily, monthly, yearly). Compare actual production to expected production based on system size and solar irradiance.

• Performance Ratio (PR): A measure of system efficiency, typically expressed as a percentage. A lower PR indicates potential issues.

• Capacity Factor: The ratio of actual energy production to the maximum possible energy production under ideal conditions.

• Specific Yield: Energy production per kWp of installed capacity.

• Module-Level Monitoring Data (if available): Provides individual module performance data for faster identification of faults or shading issues.

• Inverter Efficiency: Measures the efficiency of the inverter in converting DC to AC power.

• System Voltage and Current: Monitoring the DC and AC voltage and current allows for early detection of abnormal conditions.

Analyzing these KPIs over time allows for early detection of potential problems and proactive maintenance.

Issues with DC and AC disconnects can significantly impact a PV system’s performance and safety. Diagnosing and resolving these issues require careful examination and testing:

• Visual Inspection: Inspect the disconnects for any signs of damage, loose connections, or corrosion. Check for proper operation of the disconnects’ mechanisms.

• Testing: Use a multimeter to check for continuity across the disconnects. If a disconnect is open, you should read infinite resistance. If a disconnect is closed, you should read near-zero resistance.

• Wiring Checks: Inspect the wiring connected to the disconnects for any signs of damage, loose connections, or improper wiring.

• Breaker Checks: Check the associated breakers to ensure they are properly functioning and haven’t tripped.

• Remediation: Repair or replace any faulty components. Tighten loose connections, clean corroded terminals, or replace damaged disconnects or breakers as needed.

Example: An intermittent power outage is traced to a corroded DC disconnect. Cleaning the terminals and applying an anti-corrosion compound resolves the issue.

Regular preventative maintenance is crucial for maximizing the lifespan and efficiency of a PV system. Think of it like a car – regular servicing prevents major breakdowns and ensures optimal performance. Neglecting maintenance leads to decreased energy production, increased repair costs, and potential safety hazards.

• Cleaning: Regular cleaning of solar panels removes dirt, bird droppings, and other debris that significantly reduce energy output. Imagine a window covered in grime – it lets in far less light. The same applies to solar panels.
• Inspection: Visual inspections identify potential issues like loose connections, damaged modules, or signs of degradation before they escalate into major problems. Early detection saves money and downtime.
• Performance Monitoring: Regularly checking the system’s performance data using a data logger helps pinpoint any anomalies – a sudden drop in output could signal a fault.
• Tightening Connections: Loose connections are a common source of energy loss. Regular tightening ensures optimal electrical contact.

For example, a system I worked on experienced a significant drop in output. A simple inspection revealed several loose bolts on the racking system, causing poor grounding and energy loss. Tightening these bolts restored the system to its full potential.

Thermal imaging is a powerful non-destructive technique used to detect overheating components in a PV system. Overheating is often an indicator of a fault, such as a shorted cell, a faulty bypass diode, or a faulty connection. A thermal camera captures infrared radiation, allowing us to visualize temperature variations.

During inspection, we scan the PV array and look for hotspots – areas significantly hotter than their surroundings. These hotspots often appear as bright spots on the thermal image. For example, a consistently hotter panel or a single cell within a panel indicates a problem. The temperature difference helps us pinpoint the precise location and severity of the fault.

Once a hotspot is identified, further investigation, such as electrical testing, is required to determine the exact cause. This could involve measuring the current and voltage of the affected modules to isolate the faulty component.

Commissioning a new PV system is a critical process ensuring it meets the design specifications and operates safely and efficiently. It’s a multi-step process involving testing and verification at various stages.

1. Pre-commissioning: This involves inspecting all components for damage during shipping and storage, verifying that the system has been installed according to the design plans and ensuring correct grounding.
2. Testing: This stage comprises various tests, including insulation resistance tests (to check for ground faults), continuity tests (to verify wiring integrity), and I-V curve tracing (to assess the performance of individual modules and strings).
3. Data Acquisition: Data loggers are installed to continuously monitor the system’s performance. This data is crucial for detecting any anomalies and optimizing system operation.
4. Performance Verification: The system’s energy production is monitored and compared to the predicted output, ensuring the system performs as designed.
5. Documentation: All test results, inspection reports, and other relevant documentation are compiled into a commissioning report. This report provides a comprehensive record of the system’s performance.

A thorough commissioning process minimizes potential problems and ensures a smooth transition to operational status. It’s a vital step to protect the client’s investment and guarantee a long-lasting, efficient solar system.

Ground faults in PV systems are a serious safety hazard and a common cause of system failure. They occur when a current flows unintentionally to the ground. This can be due to several reasons:

• Damaged Cables: Deterioration or physical damage to PV cables can expose conductors, causing a ground fault.
• Poor Grounding: Inadequate earthing of the system components, like the array, inverters, or mounting structures, creates a path for fault currents to the ground.
• Water Ingress: Water entering the system through cracks or damaged seals can cause insulation breakdown and ground faults, especially during storms.
• Faulty Connectors: Damaged or improperly installed connectors can lead to exposed conductors and create pathways to the ground.

For example, a recent case I handled involved a ground fault due to a damaged cable. Water had seeped into a cable during a storm, causing a short circuit to the ground. Replacing the damaged cable resolved the issue.

Troubleshooting communication failures in a PV system requires a systematic approach, starting with the simplest checks and progressing to more complex diagnostics.

1. Check Physical Connections: Verify that all communication cables are properly connected to the inverters, data loggers, and other communication devices.
2. Examine Cables for Damage: Inspect cables for any physical damage, cuts, or kinks. Damaged cables will prevent communication.
3. Verify Network Settings: Ensure that IP addresses, subnet masks, and other network settings are correctly configured in the communication devices.
4. Check Communication Protocol: Confirm that the communication protocol (e.g., Modbus, Ethernet/IP) is correctly configured on all devices and compatible.
5. Test Communication Ports: Use a network cable tester or multimeter to verify the communication ports are functioning correctly.
6. Check System Logs: Many inverters and data loggers record errors and warnings in their system logs. These logs can provide valuable clues about the cause of the communication failure.

It’s important to systematically work through each of these steps to isolate the problem. Often, a simple loose cable is the culprit, but in more complex situations, more in-depth network diagnostics may be required.

Data loggers play a vital role in PV system fault detection by continuously monitoring key system parameters, such as voltage, current, power output, and temperature. They record this data over time, allowing for the identification of trends and anomalies. This data provides insights into the system’s performance that wouldn’t be possible through visual inspection alone.

For example, a gradual decrease in the daily energy yield over several weeks may indicate the slow degradation of modules. A sudden drop in voltage or current could indicate a short circuit, a faulty inverter, or other issues. Data loggers provide this vital historical data to identify such occurrences.

Advanced data loggers may even include algorithms that can automatically detect certain faults based on predefined thresholds and patterns. This early detection allows for proactive maintenance, preventing larger problems down the line and minimizing system downtime.

Identifying and repairing damaged PV cables requires careful attention to safety and proper procedures.

1. Visual Inspection: Begin by visually inspecting the cables for any signs of damage, such as cuts, abrasions, or burns. Look for exposed wires or signs of water damage. This is often done using a thermal imager or even an infrared camera.
2. Testing: Use a multimeter to check the continuity and insulation resistance of the cables. Low insulation resistance indicates a potential fault. This test is crucial to pinpoint the precise location of the fault.
3. Repair or Replacement: Depending on the extent of the damage, the cable may be repaired by replacing the damaged section or entirely replaced.
4. Safety Precautions: Always disconnect the system from the grid before working on the cables. Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including insulated gloves and safety glasses.
5. Documentation: Document the repair or replacement work, including the location of the damage, the repair method used, and any other relevant information.

For instance, if a cable is simply cut, splicing it with appropriate connectors and properly insulating the joint may be enough. However, a significantly damaged cable must be replaced.

Regulatory requirements for PV system safety and maintenance vary depending on location, but generally revolve around ensuring the system’s safe operation and preventing hazards. These regulations often cover aspects like:

• Electrical Safety: Standards addressing grounding, overcurrent protection (fuses, circuit breakers), insulation, and arc flash hazards. These are crucial to prevent electric shock and fire. For example, IEC 60364 and NEC (National Electrical Code) provide detailed guidelines.
• Structural Integrity: Rules governing the mounting and structural stability of the PV array, especially in high-wind or snow-load areas. Failure to meet these standards could lead to system damage or even injury.
• Fire Safety: Regulations specifying fire-resistant materials and adequate spacing to prevent fire spread, especially important in areas with dry vegetation.
• Permitting and Inspections: Many jurisdictions require permits before installation and periodic inspections to ensure compliance with safety standards.
• Worker Safety: Regulations protecting workers during installation, maintenance, and decommissioning, emphasizing fall protection, appropriate PPE (Personal Protective Equipment), and safe handling of electrical components.

Failure to comply with these regulations can result in fines, system disconnection, and potential liability for accidents. A thorough understanding of local and national codes is paramount for safe and compliant PV system operation.

Rapid degradation in a PV system, often manifesting as a significant drop in energy production over a short period, necessitates a systematic investigation. My approach involves:

1. Data Analysis: I’d start by thoroughly examining performance data from monitoring systems (discussed further in Question 3). Looking for trends in power output, voltage, current, and temperature can pinpoint the affected areas. A sudden drop in a specific string’s output, for example, suggests a localized problem.
2. Visual Inspection: A visual inspection of the entire system, including modules, wiring, connectors, and inverters, is essential. This helps identify physical damage like cracked cells, loose connections, or shading issues.
3. Infrared Thermography: Using infrared cameras to detect hotspots in the modules or wiring can indicate faulty cells, shading, or problematic connections. Hotspots represent areas of significantly increased resistance, leading to energy loss and potential damage.
4. Electrical Testing: I’d use multimeters and other specialized equipment to measure module voltages, currents, and resistances to identify faulty modules or strings. I-V curve tracing can accurately assess the performance of individual modules.
5. Troubleshooting and Repair: Based on the findings, I’d proceed with repairs, including replacing faulty modules, fixing loose connections, or addressing shading issues. In case of widespread degradation suggesting manufacturing defects, I’d liaise with the manufacturer for warranty claims.

Ultimately, the key is a systematic approach combining data analysis, visual inspection, and electrical testing to pinpoint the root cause and implement effective repairs.

I’ve worked extensively with various PV system monitoring software, including both cloud-based and on-site solutions. My experience encompasses:

• SMA Sunny Portal: A widely used cloud-based platform offering detailed performance data, alarm notifications, and remote diagnostics. I find its user-friendly interface and comprehensive reporting capabilities highly valuable for proactive maintenance.
• SolarEdge Monitoring Platform: Known for its granular monitoring at the module level, it enables precise fault detection and optimization. This granular data is particularly helpful in identifying individual faulty modules within a string.
• Fronius Solar.web: Another cloud-based platform that provides a good balance between user-friendliness and detailed data. I’ve found its remote control features useful for adjusting system parameters.
• Local Monitoring Systems: I’ve also worked with on-site data loggers and monitoring systems that allow for real-time data acquisition and analysis. These are beneficial when internet connectivity is unreliable or absent.

My experience spans different functionalities, including performance reporting, fault detection, predictive maintenance, and remote system management. The choice of software depends on the specific needs of the PV system and the client’s budget and technical expertise. In many cases, a combination of on-site and cloud-based monitoring provides the most comprehensive view of system health.

Significant energy loss in a PV system requires a systematic approach similar to addressing rapid degradation. However, the focus shifts towards pinpointing the primary energy loss source. My strategy includes:

1. Performance Data Review: Analyze historical and real-time performance data from monitoring systems. Compare current production to expected output based on weather conditions and historical data. A significant deviation highlights a problem.
2. Detailed System Inspection: Visually inspect the entire system, focusing on areas that may contribute to energy loss, such as shading from trees or buildings, soiling on modules, faulty wiring, or inverter issues.
3. String-Level Testing: Measure the voltage and current of each string to identify underperforming strings. This helps localize the problem.
4. Inverter Diagnostics: Check inverter operation, and look for error codes or performance indicators that suggest issues.
5. Module-Level Testing (if necessary): If string-level testing reveals a problem within a string, individual module testing may be necessary using I-V curve tracers to identify faulty modules.
6. Soiling Assessment: Assess the extent of soiling on the modules and determine if cleaning is necessary.

Addressing significant energy loss often involves a combination of repairs, cleaning, and potentially system upgrades or replacements depending on the severity and cause of the loss.

Bypass diodes are safety mechanisms within PV modules. They are activated when a cell within the module experiences a fault, such as shading, cracking, or hot-spotting. Their activation prevents the faulty cell from affecting the overall performance of the module.

Common causes of bypass diode activation include:

• Shading: Partial shading of a cell or group of cells creates a significant voltage difference compared to unshaded cells, leading to increased current in the shaded cells and potential damage. The bypass diode diverts current around the shaded cells.
• Cell Defects: Manufacturing defects, micro-cracks, or other damage to a cell can lead to a high resistance and overheating, triggering the bypass diode.
• Hot Spots: Localized overheating due to shading, faulty connections, or other causes can lead to thermal runaway and potential damage. The bypass diode reduces current flow and prevents further overheating.
• Corrosion or Degradation: Corrosion of cell interconnects or other components can increase resistance and cause a cell or section of a module to malfunction, activating the bypass diode.

While the activation of a bypass diode protects the module from damage, it also slightly reduces the overall power output of the affected module. The extent of the output reduction depends on the number of activated diodes and the severity of the cell fault.

My experience encompasses a wide range of PV modules, including:

• Crystalline Silicon Modules: This includes both monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon modules. I’m familiar with their characteristics, including efficiency, temperature coefficients, and degradation rates. Monocrystalline modules generally have higher efficiency but are usually more expensive.
• Thin-Film Modules: I have experience with various thin-film technologies, such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). These modules typically have lower efficiency but are often more flexible and can be used in various applications.
• Bifacial Modules: I’m familiar with the unique characteristics of bifacial modules, which can generate power from both sides. They offer potential yield gains, but their performance is highly dependent on albedo (reflectivity) of the ground surface.
• Perovskite Modules: I’m familiar with the emerging perovskite technology, which offers high potential efficiency but also presents challenges related to long-term stability and manufacturing costs.

My work involves understanding the specific characteristics of each module type to select the appropriate modules for different projects and optimize system performance. Furthermore, I consider factors such as efficiency, cost, temperature performance, and lifespan when recommending modules for a particular installation.